Manifestations of the Unconscious
Dreams, Hallucinations, Visions, Somnambulism, Mediumship
RUDOLF STEINER
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A public lecture given in Berlin, 21 March, 1918.
Translated by D. S. Osmond from shorthand
notes unrevised by the lecturer. Published by permission
of the Rudolf Steiner Nachlassverwaltung from
the volume in the Complete Edition of Rudolf Steiner's
works entitled: Das Ewige in der Menschenseele.
Unsterblichkeit and Freiheit. This volume contains
ten lectures given in Berlin between 24 January and 20
April, 1918. (No. 67 in the Bibliographical Survey, 1961).
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Everyone who is to some extent eager for
knowledge and has realised how useful a true understanding of
reality can be to human life desires to familiarise himself
with the content of Spiritual Science as presented here. On
the other hand, its methods for the attainment of knowledge
are often irksome, because Spiritual Science is bound to show
that the ordinary faculties of cognition — including
those applied in orthodox science — cannot lead deeply
into the spiritual life; and to be obliged to turn to
different sources of knowledge is not an easy matter. True,
if the study of Spiritual Science is free from preconceived
notions and ideas, it will become more and more evident that
ordinary, healthy human reason — provided it really
gets to grips with life — is capable of grasping what
Spiritual Science has to offer. But people are not willing,
above all in the case of Spiritual Science, to apply this
healthy human reason and ordinary knowledge of life, because
they do not want to turn to something that can be achieved
only through actual development of the soul. Although the
facts presented by Spiritual Science can be investigated only
by the methods to be described here, once the facts have been
investigated they can be grasped by healthy human reason and
ordinary experience. But because a certain mental laziness
makes people hesitate to penetrate into Spiritual Science,
even those who at the present time have an urge to know
something about it prefer to turn to sources more in line
with the methods applied in the laboratories,
dissection-rooms and other institutions of modern science.
And so in order to acquire a certain insight into the
spiritual life, people who cannot bring themselves to
approach Spiritual Science itself often prefer to concern
themselves with abnormal phenomena of human life to be
observed in the outer world of the senses. These people
believe that the study of certain abnormal phenomena will
elucidate certain riddles of existence. That is why Spiritual
Science is so repeatedly and so mistakenly associated with
endeavours to gain knowledge of spiritual reality by investigating
all kinds of abnormal, borderline regions of human life.
[ See
note 1 ]
For this
reason I must also speak of borderline regions which through
their very abnormality point to certain secrets of existence
but can only really be understood through Spiritual Science
and without it are bound to lead to countless fallacies about
the true nature of spiritual life. The vast range, the
interest and enigmatic character of the borderline region of
which I shall speak is to some extent known to everyone, for
it points to certain connections between external life and
its hidden foundations. I am referring to man's life of
dream. Starting from this life of dream it will be
necessary also to consider other borderline regions of
existence whose phenomena, if experienced in an abnormal way,
might induce the belief that they lead a man to the
foundations of life. I shall therefore also speak of the
phenomena of hallucination, of visionary
life and of somnambulism and mediumship,
as far as this is possible in the framework of a single lecture.
Anyone who
would have these borderline regions of human life
explained in the light of Spiritual Science must bear in mind
those essentials of genuine spiritual investigation through
which they can be elucidated. From the range of what has been
described in previous lectures I want therefore to select
certain matters which will provide a basis for study of the
phenomena in question. Spiritual Science must depend upon
development of forces of the human soul which lie hidden in
the everyday consciousness and also in the consciousness with
which ordinary science works. As I have indicated, through
certain exercises, certain procedures carried out purely in
the life of soul and having nothing whatever to do with
anything of a bodily nature, the human soul is able to evoke
powers otherwise slumbering within it and so to gain insight
into the true spiritual life. I must now briefly describe the
essential preliminaries which enable the soul to make itself
independent of the bodily element in acts of super-sensible
cognition.
I have said in
previous lectures that the attitude to be adopted to
spiritual reality must differ from that adopted to external
physical reality. Above all it must be remembered that what
is experienced in the spiritual world by the soul when free
from the body, cannot, like an ordinary mental picture, pass
over into the memory in the actual form in which it is
experienced. Whatever is experienced in the spiritual world
must be experienced each time anew, just as an
outer, physical reality must be confronted anew when it is
actually in front of us and not merely remembered. Anyone who
believes he can have genuine spiritual experience in the form
of mental pictures which he can remember just as he remembers
those arising in everyday life, does not know the spiritual
in its reality. When, as is possible, a man subsequently
recollects spiritual experiences, this is due to the capacity
to bring such experiences into his ordinary consciousness,
just as in,the case of perceptions of some outer, physical
reality. Then the pictures can be recollected. But he must
learn to distinguish between this recollection of mental
pictures formed by himself and a direct experience of a
spiritual happening, a direct encounter with a spiritual
being. A special characteristic of body-free experience,
therefore, is that it does not immediately penetrate into the
memory.
Another
characteristic is that when, in other circumstances, a man
practises in order to be able to achieve something, the
exercises enable him to do this more easily and with greater
skill. In the domain of spiritual knowledge, strangely
enough, the opposite is the case. The oftener a man has a
certain spiritual experience, the more difficult it is for
the soul to induce in itself the condition where this same
spiritual experience is again possible. It is therefore also
necessary to know the methods by which a spiritual experience
can again become accessible, because it does not allow itself
to be repeated in the same way.
The third
characteristic is that genuine spiritual experiences pass so
rapidly before the soul that alert presence of mind is
required to capture them. Otherwise a happening passes so
quickly that it has already gone by the time attention is
directed to it. A man must learn to be master of situations
in life where it is impossible to procrastinate and reflect
upon what decision to take, but where decision must be rapid
and sure. This alert presence of mind is essential if
spiritual experiences are to be held in the field of
attention. I mention these characteristics of spiritual
experience because they at once show the great difference
between an experience in the spiritual world and an
experience in the outer, physical world of the senses and how
little justification there is for people who know nothing to
insist that the spiritual investigator simply brings ideas
and concepts acquired from the outer world of the senses as
reminiscences into some kind of imaginary spiritual world.
Anyone who really knows something about the characteristics
of the spiritual world, knows too that it differs so entirely
from the world of the senses that nothing can be imported
into it from the latter, but that the development of special
faculties is essential before the spirit can confront
spiritual reality.
Certain other
conditions must also be fulfilled by one who wishes to be
capable of genuine spiritual investigation. The first
condition is that the soul must be immune as far as possible
from inner passivity. A man who likes to give himself up
dreamily to life, to make himself ‘passive’, as
the saying goes, in order that in a dreamlike, mystical state
the revelations of spiritual reality may flow into him
— such a man is ill-adapted to penetrate into the
spiritual world. For it must be emphasised that in the realm
of true spiritual life the Lord does not give to his own in
sleep! On the contrary, what makes a man fit to penetrate
into the spiritual world is vigour and activity of mind, zeal
in following trains of thoughts, in establishing connections
between thoughts seemingly remote from each other, quickness
in grasping chains of ideas, a certain love of inner,
spiritual activity. This quality is indispensable for genuine
spiritual investigation. Mediumistic tendencies and a talent
for genuine spiritual knowledge are as different as night
from day.
Another
condition is that in his life of soul a genuine spiritual
investigator must to the greatest possible extent be proof
against suggestion, against allowing himself to be influenced
by suggestion; he must confront the things of external life
too with a discriminating, sceptical attitude of mind. A
person who prefers to be told by others what he ought to do,
who is glad not to have to arrange his life according to his
own independent judgment and decisions, is not very suitable
for spiritual investigation. Anyone who knows how great a
role is played by suggestion in normal everyday life, also
realises how difficult it is to combat the general tendency
to succumb to it. Think only to what extent, in public life
particularly, people allow things to be suggested to them,
how few efforts they make to create in their own souls the
conditions for independence of judgment and for governing
their affairs by their own will. Those who study the findings
of spiritual research because their healthy intelligence
makes them desire relationship with the spiritual world are
very often accused of blind belief in the investigator. But
the fact is that blindly credulous adherents are anything but
welcome to an investigator who tries to penetrate with
conscious vision into the spiritual world. A society composed
of credulous followers would be the caricature of a society
suitable for the cultivation of spiritual knowledge. The
genuine spiritual investigator will find, to his joy, that
sooner or later those who come close to him develop
independence of judgment and a certain inner freedom also in
regard to himself, that they do not adhere to him blindly,
under the influence of suggestion, but because of common
interest in the spiritual world.
I shall speak
now of yet another characteristic which can elucidate the
relation of spiritual reality to physical reality and the
attitude to be adopted by the human soul to the spiritual
world. It is very often said that the spiritual investigator
takes with him from the physical world of sense preconceived
ideas which he then uses to describe some imagined spiritual
world. But as I have already said, genuine experience of the
spiritual world takes a different form each time. We may be
quite sure that what we experience in the spiritual world
always proves to be different from anything we previously
believed. For this reason it is clear that the spiritual
world can be reached only when the soul has been made fit for
the experience of it. There is no question of carrying
reminiscences of the physical world into an imaginary world.
But there is something else which — paradoxical
as it seems — will be confirmed by decades of
experience of the things of the spiritual world. It is that
however highly trained a person may be in body-free
cognition, however well practised in seeing into the
spiritual world, when he contemplates a particular being or
happening — especially a happening which indicates a
relationship between the spiritual world and outer, physical
reality — he will very often find that his first
experience is false. Hence the spiritual investigator
acquires the caution which leads him to anticipate that the
first experience will be misleading. Then, as he perseveres,
it becomes evident to him why he was on the false track, and
by comparing what is subsequently correct with what was
formerly fallacy, he finally recognises the truth of the
matter in question. As a rule, therefore, a genuine spiritual
investigator will not communicate his findings to his
fellow-men until a long time has elapsed since particular
researches were made, because he knows that above all in the
realm of the spiritual life, delusion and error have to be
encountered and overcome in order finally to recognise the
truth. This delusion and error are due to the fact that in
investigating the spiritual life we take our start from the
material world; we bring our powers of judgment, our mode of
perception, from the material world into the spiritual world.
At first we are always inclined to apply what we have thus
carried into the spiritual world — hence the erroneous
conclusions. But the very fact of having to realise each time
anew how different the attitude adopted to spiritual things
must be from that adopted to physical things, enables us for
the first time to perceive the intimate characteristics of
spiritual experience. It certainly seems paradoxical as
compared with ordinary, everyday experience. But one who is
able to look into the spiritual world knows, firstly, that
the eternal, immortal essence of the human soul cannot
come to conscious expression in the ordinary experiences
connected with the body; the immortal essence of the soul is
concealed, because here, in physical life, through his bodily
constitution, a man can acquire knowledge of the physical
only. That is why it is so necessary for the spiritual
investigator to emphasise unambiguously that knowledge of the
spiritual is acquired outside the body. The moment the body
is in any way involved in the acquisition of such knowledge,
this knowledge is falsified, even when remembrance —
which is preserved in the body — plays a part.
Another
outcome of a real grasp of the spiritual life is the
knowledge that a man expels himself from the spiritual world
to which the eternal core of the human soul belongs, when he
surrenders his free will in any way and under the sway of
coercion or suggestion allows what is in his soul to come to
expression through his body in actions or even only through
speech — that is to say, when anything that comes
to expression through his body has not been mediated through
the will. One fundamental condition for experiencing
the spiritual world, therefore, is to recognise that the
bodily functions must play no part in this knowledge. The
other fundamental condition is that a man must make every
effort to ensure that whatever he accomplishes through his
body is the outcome of his own power of judgment, of the free
resolve of his own will.
I was obliged
to speak first of these conditions because they provide the
basis for studying the abnormal provinces of the life of soul
which we shall be considering. In true spirit-knowledge, what
otherwise remains unconscious is revealed and this revelation
sheds light upon the eternal, essentially free, core of being
in the human soul. It is therefore possible to compare what
is thus revealed with abnormal manifestations of the life of
soul. The upsurging and ebbing world of dream which beats
against human consciousness rather than actually passing into
it, cannot really be counted among these abnormal
manifestations. The world of dream has become the subject of
much scientific and philosophical research, although it
cannot be said that the methods applied with such brilliance
in natural science are particularly suited to penetrate into
the real nature of this borderline province of human life.
The same may be said of the contention that thinking must be
in strict keeping with that of natural science and surrender
completely to the conceptions arising from it. Although,
understandably enough, modern people claim to be free from
any tendency to believe in authority, they are very inclined,
under certain conditions, to do so. Whenever somebody who is
publicly reputed to be a great thinker produces a bulky
volume dealing with the investigation of abnormal psychic
phenomena, numbers of people who really do not
understand much about the subject, praise the book to
the skies, and then, as a matter of course, our
contemporaries, while disclaiming belief in authority, accept
it as a reliable basis.
Among
philosophical treatises on the life of dream, I want to refer
particularly to a book on dream-phantasy by Johannes
Volkelt, a German scholar of brilliant intelligence and
at present Professor of Philosophy and Education at Leipzig
University. He wrote the book in 1875, before he had reached
professorial status. Even today this really valuable book is
still held against him and is doubtless responsible for the
fact that he is still only an Assistant Professor. Friedrich
Theodor Vischer, the very significant Swabian aestheticist,
wrote a fine treatise about Volkelt's book. But academic
prejudices, which during recent decades have led to a
definite view of what is or is not ‘scientific’,
are to blame for the fact that what might have been
inaugurated, even if only meagrely, by that book, lies fallow
and is obscured by current prejudices which prevent any real
penetration into the life of dream.
In the
framework of one short lecture I can give little more than a
sketch, but I want for all that to speak of particular points
in such a way that they can be illumined by Spiritual
Science.
Everyone is
familiar with the external characteristics of the upsurging
and ebbing life of pictures arising in dreams. I shall speak
of a few of these characteristics only. The dream arises as
the result of some definite instigation. Firstly, there are
dreams which have been instigated by the senses. A dream may
arise because a clock is ticking away beside us. In certain
circumstances the pendulum-beats become the trampling of
horses, or perhaps something else. Certain sense-images,
therefore, are found in the dream. I lay particular stress on
this, for dream-experience bases itself upon numerous
impressions received by the outer senses. But what works upon
the outer senses never works in the dream in the same
form as in the ordinary waking life of day. The
sense-impression is always transformed into symbolism —
a transformation that is actually brought about by the life
of soul.
Such dreams
occur very frequently. Johannes Volkelt narrates the
following in his book. A schoolmaster dreams that he is
giving a lesson; he expects a pupil to answer
‘ja’ to a question. But instead of answering
‘ja.’ the pupil answers, ‘jo’—
which may well be a source of irritation to the teacher. He
repeats the question and now the pupil does not answer
‘jo’, but ‘j-o’, whereupon the whole
class begins to shout ‘fire-jo!’ The teacher
wakes up as the fire-engine is racing past and the people are
shouting, ‘fire-jo!’ The impression made upon the
senses has been symbolised into the complicated action of the
dream.
Here is
another example given by Volkelt — wherever possible I
shall only quote examples actually recorded in literature. A
Swabian woman dreams that she is visiting her sister in a
large town. The sister is the wife of a clergyman. The two
sisters are in church listening to the sermon. The clergyman
starts in a perfectly decorous way but suddenly seems to get
wings and begins to crow like a cock. One sister says to the
other: ‘What a very peculiar way to preach!’ And
the sister replies: ‘The Consistory Court has decreed
that this is how sermons are to be preached.’ Then the
woman wakes up and hears a cock crowing outside. The crowing
of the cock which would otherwise have been heard simply as
such, has been transformed in this way in the soul;
everything else has grouped itself around the crowing. These
are examples of dreams instigated by the senses.
But dreams can
also be due to inner stimuli, and again it is not the stimuli
as such which appear, but the sense-image which has been
transformed, cast into symbolism, by the soul. For example,
someone dreams of a very hot stove; he wakes up with his
heart thumping. Dreams of flying which occur very frequently,
are due, as a rule, to some kind of abnormal process taking
place in the lungs during sleep. Hundreds of such examples
could be quoted and the different categories of dreams
enumerated at great length. Although we cannot enter
exhaustively into the deeper aspects of sleep, I want still
to speak of certain points.
Literature
offers no evidence of particular success in discovering
elements in the human soul capable of showing what is
actually going on in the soul when bringing about such
transformations of the outer stimuli of dreams. But the
question of paramount interest is this. What, in reality, is
it in the soul that causes such different imagery to be
connected with an outer stimulus, or also with a
memory-picture emerging from the darkness of sleep? Here it
must be said that what is actually working in the dream is
not the faculty which in ordinary waking life enables man to
link one mental picture to another. I could give you hundreds
of examples which would prove what I can illustrate now only
by one, for the sake of comparison. Think of the following. A
woman dreams that she has to cook for her husband —
sometimes an arduous duty for a housewife. She dreams that
she has made one suggestion after another to him. To the
first suggestion he answers: ‘I don't want that!’
To the second suggestion ‘I don't want that
either!’ To the third suggestion: ‘Don't for
heaven's sake inflict that upon me!’ And so it goes on.
In the dream the woman is very miserable about all this and
then an idea occurs to her. ‘There is a pickled
grandmother on the floor; she is rather tough, but what about
cooking her for you tomorrow?’ That too is a
dream actually recorded in literature! Nobody who knows
anything about the subject will doubt that the dream took
such a form. You will at once say to yourselves : Anxiety is
at the bottom of it. Something has happened to make the woman
anxious. The mood of anxiety — which need not have
anything whatever to do with the idea of the cooking and the
rest — is transformed into a dream-picture of this
kind. The picture is merely a clothing for the mood of
anxiety. But during sleep the soul needs this picture in
order to throw off the mood of anxiety. Just as you laughed
about the pickled grandmother, so does the soul devise this
grotesquely comic image as an adjunct to the other content of
the dream, in order to overcome the anxiety and to induce an
ironic, humorous mood. An oscillation, an alternation of
moods can always be perceived in dreams and — like the
pendulum of a clock — a swing between tension and
relaxation, between anxiety and cheerfulness, and so on. What
is of paramount importance in man's life of feeling is always
the decisive factor in the structure assumed by the pictures
of dream. From this point of view, therefore, the dream takes
shape in order that certain tensions in the soul may be
overcome. The picture which, as such, has no special
significance, is born from this need to lead tension over to
relaxation, relaxation over to tension. The soul conjures
before itself something that can be an imaginative indication
of the real gist of the matter.
Examination of
the whole range of the life of dream brings to light two
peculiar features which must be particularly borne in mind.
The one is that what is usually called logic plays
no part in dreams. The dream has a rule entirely different
from that of ordinary logic for the way in which it passes
from one object to the other. Naturally you will be able to
insist that many dreams take a perfectly logical course. But
this is only apparently the case, as everyone who
can observe these things intimately, knows. If dream-pictures
present themselves in logical sequence, the reason is not
that you yourself produce this sequence during the
dream but that you are placing side by side, mental
images which you have already connected together logically at
some time or which have been so connected by some agency in
life. In such a case, logic in the dream is
reminiscence; the logic has been imported into the
dream; the action of the dream does not in itself proceed
according to the rules of ordinary logic.
It can always
be perceived that a deeper, more intimate element of soul
underlies the action of the dream. For example — I am
quoting something that actually happened. Someone dreams that
he must go to see a friend and he knows that this friend will
scold him for some reason. He dreams that he gets to the door
of the friend's house, but at that moment the whole situation
changes. On entering the house he comes into a cellar in
which there are savage beasts intent upon devouring him. Then
it occurs to him that he has a lot of pins at home and that
they spurt fluids which will be able to kill these beasts. He
finds then that he has the pins with him and he spurts the
fluids at the savage animals. They suddenly change into
little puppies which he feels he want to pat. — This is
a typical course taken by a dream and you can see that here
again it is a matter of the tension caused by the anxiety as
to what the friend is going to say — the anxiety takes
expression as the savage beasts — being relaxed as a
result of the soul having brought about the transformation of
the wild beasts into lovable puppies. Obviously,
something quite other than logic is in evidence here.
— And anyone who is familiar with examples of dreams
knows that the following has often happened. Before going to
bed, someone has made efforts to solve a problem, but has
failed. Then, in a dream, as he says, he discovers the
solution and can write it down in the morning when he wakes
up. His story is quite correct but those who cannot
rightly investigate such things will always misunderstand
them. It must not be thought that the actual solution was
found in the dream. What was found in the dream and is
then thought to have been remembered, is something quite
different. It is something that need have very little logic
about it, but produces in the soul the beneficial effect of
tension being led over to relaxation. Before going to sleep
the man was in a state of tension because he could not solve
the problem. He brooded and brooded; something was amiss with
him. He was healed by the form taken by his dream and was
therefore able to solve the problem when he woke up.
Moral
judgment is also silent in dreams. It is well known that
in dream a man may commit all kinds of misdeeds of which he
would be ashamed in waking life. It can be argued that
conscience begins to stir in dream, that it often makes
itself felt in a very remarkable way. Think only of the
dreams contained in Shakespeare's plays — poets
generally have a good reason for such things — and you
will find that they might appear to suggest that moral
reproaches make themselves particularly conspicuous through
dreams. Again this is an inexact observation. What is true is
that in the dream we are snatched away from the faculty of
ordinary moral judgment which in connection with human beings
in outer life we must and can exercise. If the dream seems to
present moral ideas and moral reproaches in concrete
pictures, this is not due to the fact that as dreamers we
form moral judgments, but that when we act morally the soul
feels a certain inner satisfaction; we are inwardly gratified
about something to which we can give moral assent. It is this
state of satisfaction, not the moral judgment, that presents
itself to the soul in the dream. Neither logic or moral
judgment play any part at all in dreams. If the search for
truth is sincere it is essential to set to work with far
greater exactitude and depth than is usual in life and in
science too. Such matters elude the crude methods usually
applied. It is extremely significant that neither logic or
moral judgment gain admittance into the world of dream.
I want to
speak of still another characteristic of the dream which even
when considered from the external point of view, indicates
how the soul, when it dreams, is related to the world. This
relation can, it is true, be fully clarified only by
Spiritual Science. Anyone who studies the sleeping human
being will be able to say, even from the external standpoint,
that in sleep the human being is shut off alike from the
experiences arising from his own life and also from the
environment. Spiritual Science does of course make it clear
that when man falls asleep he passes as a being of soul and
spirit into the spiritual world and on waking is again united
with his body. It is not necessary to take this into
consideration at the moment, but simply to keep clearly in
mind what can also be apparent to ordinary consciousness. The
human being is shut off from his environment, and what rises
out of his body into his ordinary consciousness is also
stilled during sleep. Pictures do indeed surge up and fade
away in dreams but their actual relation to the external
world is not changed; the form assumed by the pictures is
such that this relation remains as it was. The relation to
the external world, that which as bald environment giving
contour to the outer impressions, approaches man as he opens
his senses during waking life — this does not penetrate
into the dream. Impressions can indeed be made upon a man,
but the characteristics of what the senses make out of those
impressions are absent. The soul puts an emblem, a symbol, in
the place of the ordinary, bald impression. Therefore the
actual relation to the outer world does not change. This
could be corroborated in countless cases. In the normal dream
the human being is as shut off from the external world as he
is in normal sleep; he is also shut off from his own body.
What rises up from his bodily nature does not come to direct
expression as is the case when he is united in the normal way
with his body. If, for example, someone's feet get
overheated because of a too warm covering, he would be
aware in the ordinary waking state that his feet are too hot.
In the dream he is not aware of it in this form, but he
thinks he is walking on burning coal or something of the
kind. Again it is a matter of transformation brought about by
the soul.
Attempts to
explain the nature of dream simply by using methods and
sources available to external science will always be in vain,
because there is nothing with which the dream can truly be
compared. It occurs in the ordinary world as a kind of
miraculous happening. That is the essential point. The
spiritual investigator alone is in the position of being able
to compare the dream with something else. And why? It is
because he himself knows what is revealed to him when he is
able to penetrate into the spiritual world. He realises that
the ordinary logic holding good for explanations of the outer
life of sense, no longer avails. Those who rise into the
spiritual world must be capable of expressing in images what
is experienced in that world. That is why I have called the
first stage of knowledge of the spiritual world,
‘Imaginative Cognition’. At that stage it is
realised that the images themselves are not the reality but
that through the images the reality is brought to expression.
These images must, of course, be shaped in accordance with
the true laws revealed by the spiritual world and not be the
outcome of arbitrary phantasy. The spiritual investigator
learns to know — quite apart from the physical world of
sense — how one idea or mental picture is related to
another, how images are given shape. This first stage of
knowledge of the spiritual world is then capable of being
compared with the unconscious activity at work in dreams.
There a comparison is possible, and moreover something else
comes to light as well.
A man who makes
real progress in knowledge of the spiritual world gradually
begins to experience that his dreams themselves are changing.
They become more and more rational, and crazy images such as
that of the pickled grandmother and the like gradually turn
into pictures which have real meaning; the whole life of
dream becomes charged with meaning. In this way the spiritual
investigator comes to know the peculiar nature of the
relation between the life of dream and the kind of life he
must adopt in the interests of spiritual investigation. This
puts him in the position of being able to say what it is in
the soul that is actually doing the dreaming. For he comes to
know something besides, namely, the condition of soul in
which he finds himself while experiencing the pictures and
ideas of genuine Imagination. He knows that with his soul he
is then within the spiritual world. When this particular
condition of the life of soul is experienced, it can be
compared with the condition of the soul in dreams. This
scrupulous comparison reveals that what is actually dreaming
in the soul, what is active in the soul while the chaotic
actions of dreams are in play, is the spiritual, eternal core
of man's being. When he dreams, man is in the world to
which he belongs as a being of spirit-and-soul.
That is what
emerges as the one result of spiritual investigation. I will
characterise the other by telling you about a personal
experience. Not long ago, after a lecture I had given in
Zürich on the subject of the life of dream and cognate
matters, I was told that several listeners who, on the basis
of training in what is called Analytical Psychology or
Psycho-Analysis, wanted to be considered particularly clever,
were saying after my lecture: ‘That man is still
labouring under mistaken notions which those of us who are
schooled in Psycho-Analysis have long since outgrown. He
believes that dream-life should be taken as something
real, whereas we know that it is merely a symbolic form of
the life of the psyche.’ — I shall not go further
into the subject of Psycho-Analysis today but simply remark
that this ‘cleverness’ is based upon gross
misunderstanding. For under no circumstances will a genuine
spiritual investigator take what presents itself in dreams as
reality in the actual form in which it is there presented.
Unlike the psycho-analysts, he does not take even the course
of the dream as being directly symbolic; he knows that the
gist of the matter is something entirely different. Anyone
who is familiar with dreams knows that ten or even more
people may tell of dreams with utterly different contents,
yet the underlying state of affairs is the same in all of
them. One man will say that in his dream he was climbing a
mountain and on reaching the top had a delightful surprise;
another says that he was walking through a dark passage and
came to a door which opened quite unexpectedly; a third will
speak of something else. In the course they take the dreams
have no outer resemblance whatever, yet they originate from
an identical experience, namely tension and relaxation which
are symbolised in different pictures at different times. What
is of essential importance, therefore, is not the factual
reality of the dream, not even its symbolism as the
psycho-analysts maintain, but its inner dramatic
action. From the sequence of the meaningless pictures we
must be able to recognise this dramatic action, for that is
the reality in which the soul with its spiritual core of
being is living while it dreams. This is an entirely
different reality from what is expressed in the pictures
presented in the dream. There you have the gist of the
matter. The dream therefore points to deep subconscious and
unconscious grounds of the life of soul. But the pictures
unfolded by the dream are only a clothing of what is actually
being experienced in the course of it.
Again and again
I must emphasise that as far as I am concerned there is no
question whatever of wishing to revive ancient notions in any
domain. The antecedents of what is said here are not derived
from any medieval or so-called oriental occult science, as
was the case with Blavatsky and with others who draw upon all
kinds of obscure sources. Whatever is said here is based on
the consciousness that it can hold its own in the face
of modern scientific judgment. If an opportunity for proving
this were to occur, it could certainly be used. Spiritual
Science is presented with full consciousness of the
fact that we are living in the scientific age, with full
cognisance of what natural science is able to say about the
riddles of existence, but with full cognisance, too, of what
it is not able to say about the regions of the
spiritual life.
Where do the
pictures which form the course of the dream, originate? It is
like this. A man who is really free from his body in
spiritual experience has the spiritual world before him with
its happenings and its beings, whereas the dreamer has not
yet awakened his consciousness to the degree where this is
possible for him. His soul resorts to the reminiscences of
ordinary life and the dream arises when the soul impacts the
body. The dream is not experienced in the body but it is
caused by the impact of the soul with the body. Hence the
things which constitute the course of his life present
themselves to the dreamer, but grouped in such a way that
they bring to expression the inner tendencies of which I have
spoken. In reality, therefore, the dream is experienced
by a man's own essential being of soul-and-spirit. But it is
not the Eternal that is experienced; what is experienced is
the Temporal. It is the Eternal that is consciously active in
the dream; but this activity is mediated by the Transitory,
the Transient. The essential point is that in the dream the
Eternal is experiencing the Temporal, the Transitory —
the content of life.
I have now
briefly explained the nature of dream as viewed in the light
of Spiritual Science and why it is that the content of the
dream is not an expression of what is actually going on in
the soul when relaxation follows tension and tension follows
relaxation. In the life of dream the soul is in the world of
the Eternal, free from the body. But what enters into the
consciousness as the clothing of this experience arises from
the connection with the ordinary circumstances of life.
I pass now to
the second borderline region of the life of soul where
manifestations of the unconscious may occur in the form of
hallucinations, visions and the like.
[ See references ]
Even philosophers capable
of sound judgment, such as Eduard von Hartmann for
example, whose powers of discrimination and discernment I
rate exceedingly highly, have been led to the mistaken belief
— because they could not grasp the nature of the dream
from the standpoint of Spiritual Science — that what
comes as a picture before the soul in dream is really
identical with a picture arising as an hallucination or
vision. But these phenomena are essentially different from
each other. Because the genuine spiritual investigator knows
what condition of soul is present when he stands within the
spiritual world and can compare this with the condition of
the soul prevailing in dream, he is able to assess the
meaning of certain peculiarities of the life of dream, for
example, the absence of logic. The spiritual investigator
knows that sensory experience is not without significance but
that equally with body-free experience between death and a
new birth it has its meaning and purpose in the life of man.
It is precisely in our intercourse with the outer, material
world that we can assimilate the logic streaming into the
soul from that world. The spiritual investigator knows too
that moral judgment comes to direct expression in physical
life, in the experiences arising from civilisation. Genuine
Spiritual Science will never lead to escapism or false
asceticism but rather to a full appreciation of physical
life, because logic, the capacity for moral judgment and
moral impulses, are inculcated into the soul through its
contact with the outer world during physical life.
In point of
fact the dream passes only slightly into the abnormal life of
soul. Spiritual Science shows that the soul is free from the
body in dream, that the experiences of dream are independent
of bodily experiences; they are separated from the link with
the outer world that is present in waking life. In the dream,
man is actually free from his body. Is this also the case in
hallucinations, in visionary experiences? No, it is not!
Hallucinations and visions are due precisely to
abnormalities of the physical body. Visionary,
hallucinatory activity in the life of soul can never occur
independently of bodily experiences. Something in the body
must always be disturbed or diseased, must be functioning
improperly or too feebly, thus preventing a man from entering
into the full connection that is present when he is using his
nerves and senses in such a way that in experiencing himself,
he is also experiencing the outer world. If an organ
connected in any way with the faculty of cognition is
diseased or too weak, a phenomenon such as an hallucination
or a vision may arise: it resembles spiritual experience but
is fundamentally different from it. Whereas in spiritual
experience a man must be free from the body, this
hallucinatory, visionary life sets in because something is
either diseased or functioning too feebly in the body. Now
what really lies at the bottom of hallucinations and visions?
The ordinary process of ideation (Vorstellen) taking
place normally in sensory life succeeds in being independent
of those forces in the human organism which cause growth in
childhood, bring about the inner functions of the body
— metabolism, digestion, and so forth. I cannot speak
in greater detail today of how that which as a bodily
function underlies the normal life of ideation arises through
part of the organism being lifted out of the sphere of purely
animal life, of the processes of growth, digestion,
metabolism and so forth. The basis of the normal life
connected with the nerves is that a kind of soul-organism
develops like a parasite out of the process of digestion,
metabolism, etc. Now when, owing to particularly abnormal
conditions, some organ of cognition is so affected that this
soul-organism does not work through itself alone but that the
bodily organ with its animal functions is working as well
— this is due to disease or weakness of the organ
concerned — the result is that the man does not devote
himself to mental life independently of the forces
of growth, digestion and metabolism, but that hallucinations
and visions arise. What is organic activity in the vision
ought really to be promoting growth, bringing about digestion
and the distribution of the more delicate processes of
metabolism. What happens in this condition is that animal
functions are surging upwards into the soul-organism.
Life is not by
any means sublimated in hallucinations and visions; on the
contrary it is far rather permeated by the animal functions
which do not, in other circumstances, extend into the
soul-organism. What ought to be serving quite different
processes is carried up into those of cognition, of mental
perception. Hence hallucinations and visions are always an
expression of the fact that something is not in order in the
human being. True, what makes its appearance is a
manifestation of the spiritual, but one of which Spiritual
Science cannot make use; for Spiritual Science can make use
only of what is experienced independently of the body.
You now see
what an utter lack of foundation there is for the very
general misconception that Spiritual Science acquires its
knowledge through visions, hallucinations and the like. On
the contrary, Spiritual Science shows that these states are
always connected in some way with abnormalities in the body
and that they must play no part whatever in its findings.
Neither are hallucinations and visions ever identical in
character with the pictures of dreams. The pictures of dreams
arise outside the body and are only mirrored in it;
hallucinations and visions arise because some bodily organ so
to speak leaves a space free. If it were functioning normally
the man would stand firmly in the physical world with healthy
senses. But because a space is left free, the
spiritual-eternal element which ought to remain invisible in
the bodily organism comes to light through it. This condition
is not merely a physical illness, it is a psychical
abnormality, something that can only cloud and falsify the
pictures from the spiritual world. Hence the fact that
pictures arise when some bodily function is weakened, need
cause no surprise. For how do sense-pictures come into being?
They come into being because the forces which promote
metabolism, digestion and the like in the normal way, are
toned down and assert themselves in the soul-organism in a
different form. If, then, these forces are toned down in the
human being to a greater extent than is proper, abnormal
consciousness is the result. The sense-pictures we have in
normal consciousness are conditioned by bodily life that has
been toned down to the normal extent. If the
weakening is excessive, something that originates entirely
from this improper condition makes its appearance. It can
therefore be said that hallucinations and visions represent a
striving that has been obstructed. As the human being
develops from childhood to mature age, he is really striving
to penetrate into his bodily organism. He endeavours so to
develop his nature of spirit-and-soul that the body
becomes the instrument for soul-activity. This is obstructed
when something in the body is unhealthy. When the human being
develops in such a way that his body becomes his servant, he
grows into physical independence, into his egoity in the
world of the senses, into the amount of egoism that is
necessary to make him a self-based being, able to fulfil his
destination as man. This egoism must of course be mingled
with the necessary selflessness. The important thing is that
a man shall permeate his life with the forces of his Ego. If
certain obstructions make him incapable of doing so,
his search for the requisite amount of egoism takes an
abnormal path. This comes to expression in hallucinations and
visions which are always due to the fact that through his
bodily constitution a man cannot acquire the due amount of
egoism necessary to his life.
To the
borderline regions of the life of soul also belong the
conditions produced when catalepsy or coma have led to
somnambulism — which is akin to
mediumship. Just as man's organism of thinking
— I say expressly ‘organism of thinking’,
not ‘mechanism of thinking’ — must be
constituted in a certain way to prevent the disorder I have
just characterised as hallucination and vision from taking
effect, so too the mechanism of the will — here I say
‘mechanism’ — must be constituted in a
certain way for normal life in the world of the senses. Just
as the organism of thinking can bring about hallucinations
and visions as manifestations of abnormal soul-life, so the
will can be undermined when its mechanism is
disturbed, quashed or paralysed in catalepsy, coma, or
mediumship. True, if the spirit is not working upon it, the
body is not able directly to evoke the will, but it is able,
when certain organs are put out of action, when the mechanism
of the will is brought to a standstill, to enfeeble the
will, whereas the spiritual investigator, as I said at the
beginning, can stand firmly in the spiritual world because
his will works in full consciousness upon his body. If the
body is paralysed in respect of the will, it quashes,
suppresses, this will; man is then lifted away from the world
to which he belongs as a being of spirit-and-soul, as a
being of eternity, and is cast into the physical environment
which is, of course, also permeated with spiritual forces and
entities. He is then thrust out of his real world into the
element of spirit which unceasingly pervades and weaves
through the physical. This is the case in somnambulism,
this is the case in mediumship.
Those who in
the sense indicated at the beginning of this lecture adopt an
easy-going attitude where Spiritual Science is concerned,
would like to investigate the spiritual world in the same
way. But such people cannot reach the true spiritual world
which guarantees eternal life for the soul; they can work
only with what permeates and pervades the physical
environment. What is working in the somnambulist, in the
medium, works in the normal human being too, but differently.
This may indeed sound strange, but it is nevertheless a
finding of Spiritual Science. What is really working in the
medium, in the somnambulist? In ordinary life we have a
certain moral link with other human beings; we act out of
moral impulses. I said that these moral impulses are
generated by way of the physical body. We perform acts in the
field of external civilisation, we learn to write, to read,
we learn what the human will inculcates as a spiritual
element into the outer physical world. With the forces
employed by our soul in the activity of learning to read, of
assimilating other cultural endowments, of entering into
moral relationships with the world — with all these
forces the soul of the somnambulist or the medium is
connected in an abnormal way. This activity which is
otherwise exercised only in the moral domain, in the domain
of the cultural life, is transferred directly into the bodily
constitution of the medium or the somnambulist; this is
possible because the consciousness has been lowered and the
soul disconnected. Whereas in normal life the human being is
in contact with the surrounding world solely through his
senses, in the case of the somnambulist and the medium, the
whole man comes into connection, through his
will-mechanism, with the surrounding world. This makes it
possible for influences from a distance to take effect; a
thought can also work into the distance and distant vistas
— both spatial and temporal — can arise. But in
most of these cases, what penetrates into the human organism
is the spiritual element which pervades the physical world to
which we belong as physical men, it is the spiritual element
belonging to the cultural and moral life. But it penetrates
in such a way that the soul is disconnected from the
organism. Hence what is made manifest through the medium or
the somnambulist does not lead to the being of
spirit-and-soul in man but is simply a caricature of the
workings of the spiritual upon man's bodily nature. Whereas
in normal life the soul itself must be the intermediary
between the truly spiritual and the body, in these abnormal
states the spiritual is working directly on the body
— but only in the sense I have described. The result is
that with his consciousness disconnected, such a man becomes
a kind of automaton; only those elements which belong
externally to cultural or moral life are expressing
themselves in him. From this it will be clear to you that,
although it is disguised and masked in the most diverse way,
what is to all appearances the spiritual does come
to expression through mediumship and somnambulism, but only
provided certain combinatory factors and associations are
present; these cannot be discussed here because it would lead
us too far afield. The essentials which come to expression in
this way originate from the physical environment. Men who
stand firmly on the ground of natural science but do not
outgrow its established notions, would like to penetrate into
the spiritual world to which the eternal core of man's being
belongs, by taking to their aid the phenomena of somnambulism
and mediumship. But this leads to countless fallacies and
errors.
I shall now
speak of one recent example. It is of great interest because
it is characteristic of this whole domain. Here we have a
scientist very highly esteemed in his own country, a
scientist well versed in all the niceties of scientific
methods and who therefore does not by any means go carelessly
to work when he approaches these matters. I am referring to
Sir Oliver Lodge, the celebrated English scientist.
It is a very remarkable case, one that is connected with the
present catastrophic events. Lodge was always attracted to
the question of how a link could be established between the
outer, physical world and the world to which man belongs when
he has passed through the gate of death. But he wanted to
remain firmly on a scientific foundation. — This
attitude is of course characteristic of people who are not
willing to have anything to do with the methods of Spiritual
Science. — Lodge had a son who was serving on the
French Front during the war, and one day the father received
a strange letter from America. This letter informed Lodge
that his son was facing great danger, but that the spirit of
Myers — who had died ten years previously — would
hold a protecting hand over the young man while the danger
threatened. Frederick Myers had been President of the Society
for Psychical Research; he had been occupied deeply with the
study of super-sensible matters and Lodge and his family knew
him well. It could therefore be presumed — if it is in
any way accepted that a connection is possible between some
happening in the super-sensible world and human life —
that Myers would certainly hold a protecting hand over young
Lodge when danger was looming before him. But the letter was
extremely ambiguous — as letters of such a kind are
always wont to be. Obviously young Lodge might be in danger,
but he might also be saved from it, and then the writer of
the letter would be able to say: ‘Did I not receive
through a medium a message to the effect that Myers is
protecting Lodge's son? Through the help of Myers the boy has
been saved from the danger of death.’ But if the boy
had been killed, the writer of the letter would equally well
be able to say: ‘Myers is protecting him in the other
world.’ If a third eventuality were possible, the
letter could have been interpreted in that sense too. —
It does not do to be unsceptical if we wish to get at the
real truth of these matters. — Naturally, Lodge did not
attach particular weight to the communication, for he was
well aware that such things are capable of many
interpretations. — The son was killed. Then his father
received a second message to the effect that Myers was indeed
protecting his son in the other world, and that there were
people in England who would provide proof of it. —
Certain ways of organising such matters do exist. —
There were several mediums who were received into the circle
of Sir Oliver Lodge's family — most of whom were
sceptics. Manifestations of all kinds took place and Lodge
has described them in detail in a bulky volume which is
extremely interesting for many reasons. The phenomena there
described do not, for the most part, differ greatly from
others that have been put on record and there was no need for
any particular excitement about them — nor indeed was
any shown. Lodge would not have thought it worth while to
describe these manifestations if something else had not
happened. Because he was familiar with all the devices used
in the scientific mode of research, in this instance too he
set to work like a chemist making investigations in a
laboratory and used every conceivable precautionary
measure in order to establish the facts without possibility
of dispute. People feel therefore that this book makes it
possible to form a real judgment about the case in point, for
Lodge describes it as a scientist would do.
Among all kinds
of other cases he describes the one that may be regarded as a
veritable experimentum crucis, and it caused a
tremendous stir. Even the most incredulous journalists
— and journalists are usually sceptical, whether or not
always from well-founded judgment I could not say —
were impressed by this crucial test case. The circumstances
were as follows : A medium who claimed to be in communication
with the soul of Myers as well as with the soul of Lodge's
son, said that a fortnight before the latter was killed at
the French Front, he had been photographed together with a
number of his companions, and the photograph was
minutely described — the placing of the officers, how
young Lodge was sitting in the front row, how he was holding
his hands, and so forth. It was then said that several
photographs had been taken and that the grouping had altered
slightly while this was being done. The different grouping
was also indicated with the same precision — the
position of young Lodge's hands and arms had changed, he was
inclining towards the man next him, and so forth. An exact
description was given of this photograph too. Now the
photographs were not in England; nobody — neither the
medium, nor any of the family, nor Sir Oliver Lodge himself
— had seen them. It could only be assumed that the
medium was rambling in imagination when describing the
photographs. But lo and behold, after fourteen days these
photographs arrived and tallied exactly with what the medium
had said. That this was an experimentum crucis for
Lodge and those intimately concerned, cannot be wondered at;
and it is here that the real interest of the book lies. A
genuine spiritual investigator will not, of course, be taken
in — as in a certain respect Lodge himself was taken in
— because the scrupulously exact presentation enables
him to form an independent, objective judgment.
How comes it
that a man who is not willing to penetrate into the spiritual
world by means of true spiritual investigation does
nevertheless find on such a path something that convinces him
of the influx of a spiritual world? The genuine spiritual
investigator would not be brought to a like conviction,
because he knows what has actually happened in this case.
Moreover he will be astonished that such a man as Lodge, in
spite of his experience in scientific research, is an out and
out amateur in these matters.
Anyone who has
only a superficial acquaintance with these phenomena, perhaps
by no means through independent vision but simply from
literature, knows that in somnambulists and mediums there is
a connection with the environment in the sense I have
described, that the whole man is as it were transformed into
sense-organs — with the result that automatic
pre-visions in time arise. These pre-visions are
always due to a sick or enfeebled life of soul. They have
nothing to do with the world to which man belongs with the
immortal part of his being; they have to do with what is
spiritual in the physical sense-environment, especially with
what the will of man brings to pass there. Just because Lodge
describes conscientiously it becomes quite evident that the
medium simply had a pre-vision, that he ‘saw’ the
photographs a fortnight before they arrived in England.
This may seem miraculous enough but these are quite ordinary
phenomena. At all events this is not, as Lodge thinks, a
proof that Myers was protecting his son. It may have been so,
of course, but it would have to be investigated in research
carried out in a body-free condition.
When there is
unwillingness to take the path of Spiritual Science the
temptations and allurements even for those who are
conscientious researchers and confront such phenomena
cautiously and critically, are very great. What can be learnt
through these abnormal manifestations, whereby man is made
into an automaton, must never become the content of a true
science of the super-sensible world to which the eternal part
of man's being belongs.
A great deal
that might still be added would show in the same way how
these borderline regions of man's life of soul point to
something which, although it too rests in the realm of the
Unconscious, can never reveal to man that which, in that same
realm, is of the greatest significance of all — namely
the spiritual world to which man belongs with the free,
immortal part of his being. Among all these manifestations
the life of dream alone remains within the sphere of the
normal, because in dream the human being is not experiencing
through the bodily constitution but through the
spirit-and-soul; as a being of spirit-and-soul he strikes up
against the body and the physical experiences. Hence in
respect of the life of dream too, man is able to exercise
correctives and to give it its right place in the rest of
life; whereas in the case of what he experiences through his
body in the way of hallucinations, visions, manifestations of
somnambulism and mediumship he is not able to do
this with his normal powers of discrimination.
In the next
lecture we will go more deeply into something which in the
course of cultural development brings constant blessing and
upliftment to human life, namely ART. In dream, man
experiences the spiritual world in such a way that as the
result of impact with the bodily constitution, sense-images
take shape. The experiences which arise in a true artist and
in one who finds delight and inspiration in Art, also lie in
regions beyond those of merely physical experience. True Art
is brought from the super-sensible into the sense-regions of
life, but in this case the process of clothing the
experiences in pictures is not an unconscious one. Just as in
the dreamer the soul's actual experience remains in the
unconscious but reveals itself through what the soul —
again unconsciously — adds as clothing to the
experience itself, so the super-sensible experience of the
artist and of the one who finds delight in a work of art, is
brought into the sense-world. But in this case the clothing
with the picture, with the Imagination which, arising from
external life, gives the super-sensible experience a place in
the sense-world, is consciously achieved. The gist
of the next lecture will be that Art is in very truth a
messenger from a super-sensible world, that delight in Art is
a power which lifts the soul to the super-sensible world by
way of sensory form, through sense-imagery.
And now to sum
up what has been said today. It is true that man is led
towards the region of spirit when he confronts these abnormal
manifestations; for it is the spiritual world that shines
into the life of man even if he is experiencing it in an
abnormal way. But these abnormal manifestations may never be
induced artificially, any more than pathological states may
be induced for the purpose of acquiring knowledge.
What is it that
remains from all these manifestations and phenomena as a
vital admonition? It is that man shall find the way to true
experience of the spiritual. We have heard that in the light
of Spiritual Science the realm of dream is saved from the
suspicion of being one of pathological experience —
although naturally there may now and again be slight
tendencies towards it. But when it is realised that through
the seemingly chaotic life of dream man is admonished to find
the path into the true spiritual world, the significance of
such study becomes evident. A great world-riddle is knocking
here at the door of human life. This world-riddle is the
dream with its strange pictures in which logic and moral
judgment are lacking but which are a definite signpost to the
spiritual world itself. Hence we can find ourselves in
agreement with what is said by the clear-sighted aestheticist
and philosopher Vischer in his critique of Volkelt's
book:
‘When the
dream with all its rich meagreness, its meagre richness, with
its ingenious stupidity and stupid ingeniousness, is
contemplated in its unconscious creative activity, it will be
recognised that it does nevertheless point to what is
spiritual in the human being and can be sought
after.’
And Vischer is also right when he says:
‘A man
who believes that this spirit-realm of dream is not worthy to
be a matter for genuine investigation, merely shows that he
has not much spirit in him.’
The realm of
dream is an admonition to man to seek for the spiritual
world, and the aim of Spiritual Science is to fulfil this
admonition. Whereas in the life of dream there can be
pictures of the transitory only, for all that the soul's
eternal core of being is active there, through
spiritual-scientific knowledge it is possible for the soul
also to be filled with pictures that give expression to the
spiritual reality corresponding to its own inherent nature,
thereby pointing to its allotted place in the world of
spiritual reality as the senses point to its allotted place
in the physical world.
REFERENCES (among many others):
Lecture-Courses by Rudolf Steiner.
True and False Paths in Spiritual Investigations.
New edition, 1969.
Cosmic and Human Metamorphoses.
Lecture One.
The Occult Movement in the 19th Century
(typescript).
History of Spiritism, Hypnotism and
Somnambulism.
Notes:
Note 1. See
True and False Paths in Spiritual Investigations.
Eleven lectures given by Rudolf Steiner in Torquay,
August, 1924. An entirely new translation of this
important lecture-course has been printed in view of the
increasing interest now being shown in such subjects and
the need for less superficial methods of research.
(Rudolf Steiner Press. 28s.) See also list of references
above.
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