LECTURE TWO:
Normal and abnormal
Archangels and Time Spirits.
The Spirits of Language and of Modes of Thought.
[ Study Guide: Souls of the Nations — Second Lecture ]
I stated yesterday that
those Beings who are to be considered as Folk Spirits have reached a
stage of development when they work from within the ‘I’
upon their etheric or life-body, when they fashion this body from out
of the inmost depths of the soul.
Now
it will be said, of course, that the work upon the etheric body is
not immediately perceptible to the senses or to external observation
but only to clairvoyant consciousness, and this must be admitted.
None the less, if the activity of these Beings, of these Folk
Spirits, invades the life of man, then there must be on the other
hand some visible indication, some tangible evidence, some kind of
impression or reflection of this work of the Folk Spirits or
Archangelic Beings, in proof of this. Furthermore these Beings must
also possess in a certain sense a physical body. They must be able to
express their corporeality in some form or other. And these Beings
whose activity is expressed in this physical form must give some
indication of their presence in the world of man, for in the final
analysis the human body must be associated with the work of these
spiritual Beings.
Let
us begin with the etheric body of these Beings and their work in the
transformation of this body. Here we must first of all refer to the
investigations of clairvoyant consciousness. Where does clairvoyant
research find evidence for the existence of the etheric body of these
Archangelic Beings? And how are we to understand this work? You all
know that the surface of the Earth shows different configurations and
that the different regions of the Earth provide widely differing
conditions for the unfolding of attributes peculiar to the various
peoples. The materialist believes that climate, vegetation, or
perhaps water availability and other
factors determine the distinctive features or characteristics of a
particular people. That such is the outlook of the materialist is not
surprising, for his consciousness is limited to the phenomenal world.
Clairvoyant consciousness presents a different picture. Whoever is
endowed with clairvoyant consciousness and visits the various
countries is aware that his familiarity with the particular kind of
vegetation, with the characteristic configuration of the rocks, does
not exhaust his knowledge of that country or provide a complete
picture of a particular geographical area. To speak of a particular
aroma and aura associated with a certain region is, in the eyes of
the materialist, to deal in unrealities. To clairvoyant consciousness
there extends over every region of the Earth a peculiar spiritual
cloud-like formation that we call the etheric aura of that particular
region. This etheric aura varies according to the landscape: in
Switzerland it is different from Italy and again different in Norway,
Denmark or Germany. Just as every man has his own etheric body, so a
kind of etheric aura hovers above every region of the Earth's
surface.
This
etheric aura differs considerably from other etheric auras, from that
of man, for example. The etheric aura of the human being is part of
him as long as he lives. It is united to his physical body and only
undergoes modification in so far as man progressively develops during
his lifetime and lifts himself to a higher moral and intellectual
plane. Then we are always conscious that this etheric aura begins to
be inwardly transformed, develops a certain inner light, a luminous
quality. The etheric auras that can be perceived over the various
countries are of a different nature. Admittedly they preserve a
fundamental tone or quality which persists over long periods of time.
But, at the same time, these etheric auras are prone to rapid
changes, and in this respect they differ from the human auras which
change slowly and gradually, and only from within. These auras
extending over the various countries change in the course of human
evolution when a people migrates and occupies new territory. The
strange feature is that the etheric aura over a certain region
depends in fact not only upon the etheric emanations from the soil,
but also upon the people which was last domiciled there.
Those,
therefore, who wish to follow how the destinies of our human race are
shaped on Earth, endeavour to follow the interpenetration of this
aspect of the etheric auras which is peculiar to the different
geographical regions. The various etheric auras of Europe underwent
considerable change at the time of the migrations of the peoples.
Thus the etheric aura of a particular, region is subject to change,
to sudden transformations which may even have their source in
external factors to some extent. Every one of these etheric auras is,
in a certain respect, a fusion of the emanations from the soil and
the inheritance of the migrations of the peoples. When we observe
this aura we must clearly understand that the saying, everything in
the external world apprehended by the senses is only maya or
illusion, which is so freely quoted by Theosophists is seldom grasped
in its fullest implications. Though often repeated, its implications
are largely ignored, and it rarely leads to a change of attitude to
life. It becomes virtually an empty phrase; in face of the stern
realities of life it is forgotten and people cling to their old
materialistic outlook. The green vegetation, the peculiar
configuration of the landscape which we see around us is, in reality,
only maya or illusion; it is a precipitation, as it were, of the
active principle in the etheric forces. Indeed only that aspect of
the external world is dependent upon this etheric aura, upon which
this aura, i.e. a living, organizing principle, can exert an
influence. The Archangels who embody the spiritual laws cannot
intervene in the physical laws. Where, therefore, only physical laws
are operative, as in the configuration of mountain ranges, in the
contours of the landscape and so on, in all cases where physical
conditions determine the great changes in a people, the influence of
the Archangels cannot take effect. They are not sufficiently advanced
in their evolution to be able to intervene in purely physical
conditions. Because they are unable to do this, because they are not
free agents, they are compelled at certain times to wander over the
surface of the Earth, They incarnate somewhat after the fashion of a
physical incarnation, in that which is represented by the
configuration of the landscape, in that which is subject to physical
laws. The etheric body of the people cannot as yet enter into this
domain, cannot, as yet, penetrate into it and organize it. Therefore
a suitable territory is selected and from this union of the etheric
body now permeated with spiritual soul-forces, and the geographical
area, is born that charm or fascination which a people radiates,
which is dimly sensed by one who is not clairvoyant, but which a
clairvoyant who sees into the secret hearts and minds of the people
is able to discern.
Now
how does the activity of the Archangels, the Folk Souls, work into
the etheric aura that extends over a country? What is the function of
the Archangel, how does he work into the people who inhabit this
country and live within this aura of the Folk Spirit? This influence
expresses itself in three ways. The etheric aura of the people
interpenetrates, permeates man; it affects three aspects of his
being. The interplay of these three aspects creates the peculiar
characteristic of the person who lives in this etheric aura of the
people. This etheric aura acts upon the three temperaments, the
choleric, phlegmatic and sanguine temperaments, which are themselves
rooted in his affective life, but not upon the so-called melancholic
temperament. In general, therefore, the potent influence of the
etheric aura of a people streams into these three temperaments. In
the single individual these three temperaments may be variously
commingled and interact in a wide variety of ways. There are infinite
possibilities of interaction, as when one temperament influences
another or dominates it, and so on. Here lies the source of the
multiplicity of types we meet with in Russia, Norway and Germany. The
national characteristics of an individual are determined by that
which works into the temperaments. The difference between the several
individuals depends entirely upon the extent to which the three
temperaments are commingled. National temperaments, therefore, vary
in accordance with the extent of the interpenetration of the
folk-aura.
Thus
the Folk Spirits are active everywhere. They follow, however, the
path peculiar to them. The fact that they work into the temperaments
is not vital for their own development; they only do so because they
are involved in the interplay of cosmic and terrestrial forces. It is
a volitional act, a necessary part of their mission. At the same time
their own ego-development must be taken into account. They themselves
must further their evolution, move across the face of the Earth and
incarnate in a particular region. This is central to their mission;
their influence upon the temperaments of men is of secondary
importance. Naturally, man himself also benefits through their work;
it reacts upon him. And equally, the activity of man reacts upon the
Folk Spirits. We shall discuss later the significance of the
individual human beings for the Folk Spirit. This is important. But
it is essential that we should be able to follow the progress of one
of these Folk Spirits and see how he incarnates on Earth, lives again
for a time in the spiritual world and then incarnates again
elsewhere. When we observe these recurrent changes we are still only
observing the ego-interests of these Beings. Picture to yourselves
quite realistically the etheric body of the human being embedded in
the etheric body of the people; then picture the interaction of the
human etheric body and the etheric body of the people, and think too
of how the latter is reflected in the temperaments of the people, in
the mingling of temperaments in the single individuals. Therein lies
the secret of how the Folk Spirit or Nation Spirit reveals his
character within a particular people. Having said this, we have, in
effect, described the full scope of the most important work of the
true Archangels or Folk Spirits.
We
should by no means have exhausted the characteristics of a people if
we were to take into consideration only the character of an
individual member of this people. This is the function of the
Archangelic Beings, who are the real Spirits of the indigenous groups
of the same language-stock.
Now,
as you can readily imagine, this does not complete the picture of a
people, for if the Archangel, the guiding Folk Spirit, did not
contact other Beings on the same territory and did not work in
conjunction with them in the etheric body of man, many of the
characteristics of a people would not originate at all. Man is the
stage upon which the Archangels meet with yet other Beings who
cooperate with the Archangels and, so to speak, work in conjunction
with them. From this cooperative endeavour something totally
different emerges.
When,
with clairvoyant consciousness, we study the different peoples, we
find, strange to relate, besides the Archangelic Beings already
described, other mysterious Beings who are related to the Archangels
in certain respects, but who are otherwise totally different from
them, in that they are more potent Beings than the Archangels
themselves. In this weaving into the temperaments the Folk Spirit
works in an extremely subtle and intimate way upon the individual
human soul. But there are other Beings who exercise a much more
potent influence. From our general knowledge of the Hierarchies we
must be quite clear about these Beings; we shall then be able to name
these other Beings who are perceived by clairvoyant consciousness.
You must think of the sequence of the Hierarchies of Spirits in the
following way:
- Man
- Angels
- Archangels
- First Beginnings, Archai or Spirits of Personality
- Powers (Exusiai) or Spirits of Form
There
are yet other Spirits of a higher order who do not concern us today.
If
you recall what we spoke of yesterday — and you will find a
detailed description in the information contained in my books
Cosmic Memory
[Original
title: Aus der Akasha Chronik. Published with the title of
Cosmic Memory
by Rudolf Steiner Publications, Inc., New York.
(Obtainable from Rudolf Steiner Press, London. See the list of
literature at the end of this volume.)] and
Occult Science — an Outline
you will know that it was the
Archangels who underwent their human stage on Old Sun. At that time
those Beings whom we call Spirits of Form or Powers, who are now two
stages higher than the Archangels, were at the Archangel stage; they
were Beings such as the Folk Spirits we have described today. That
was their normal stage of evolution.
Now
there is a strange mystery attaching to evolution — the law of
deferred development. In accordance with this law certain Beings
remain behind at each stage of evolution, so that in the succeeding
stage they have not reached their normal rank. They retain the
characteristics which belong to earlier stages. Throughout the
evolution of mankind there have always been Beings who remained
behind and amongst them are also certain Spirits of Form or Powers.
Their deferred development took a very singular form. Whilst they are
Spirits of Form or Powers in terms of certain attributes, and by
virtue of certain attributes are able to exercise the powers that
belong at the present time solely to the Spirits of Form who have
bestowed the ego upon man at the Earth-stage, they cannot, as yet,
realize this completely because they do not possess the necessary
attributes. They have remained behind, with the result that they did
not undergo their Archangelic stage on the Old Sun, but are now
experiencing it in the Earth-stage. Hence they are Beings who are now
at the stage of the Folk Spirits, but endowed with quite different
attributes. Whilst the Folk Spirits work in a subtle way into the
life of man because they are two stages above him and are
consequently still related to him, these Spirits of Form are four
stages above the human stage. They possess, therefore, a vast array
of potent forces which would not be suitable for working so
intimately into man. They would act more vigorously and would have no
other sphere for their activity than that in which the normal Folk
Spirits work.
The
difficulty is that one must first learn to discriminate in the
spiritual world. Those who imagine that a few ideas suffice for the
understanding of the higher worlds are very much mistaken. With a few
superficial ideas they would certainly contact the Archangels. But
one must distinguish between the Archangels who have reached the
Archangel stage in the normal way and those who ought to have reached
that stage during the Old Sun condition of the Earth. Thus, other
Beings are at work in the same domain as the Folk Spirits or
Archangels, Beings who stand at the same level as the Archangels, but
are endowed with very different, with more robust attributes such as
are possessed by the other Spirits of Form and who are able therefore
to penetrate deeply into human nature. In what respects has man been
influenced by the Spirits of Form during his Earth existence? He
could not have developed ego-consciousness if the Spirits of Form had
not given the brain its present form. Beings such as these are able
to work even into the configuration of the human form although they
are only at the stage of the Archangels. They compete with the Folk
Spirits in the domain where the Folk Spirits are active.
The
first and major effect of this contact between these Spirits with
their different approaches is the birth of language which could not
arise without the fully developed form and structure of the human
body. In the structure of man we see the activity of these other Folk
Spirits who are associated with the forces of Nature and with man. We
must not ascribe the birth of language solely to these Beings who
subtly work into the folk temperament and who, as Beings two stages
above man, imprint their formal configuration upon a people. The
Beings who are responsible for language are Beings of great creative
energy for they are in reality ‘Powers’, i.e.
Spirits of Form. They exercise effective influence upon the Earth
because they have remained on Earth, whereas their colleagues, the
normal Spirits of Form, work in the ‘I’, work from the
Sun into the cosmic spaces. Before the advent of Christ Jesus men
worshipped Jahve, or the Jehovah Being; thereafter they worshipped
the Being of Christ as the One who shed His Spirit upon them from the
Cosmos. As to the Spirits of language, we must say that man cherishes
precisely that aspect of language which has remained on Earth. We
must learn to accustom ourselves to new points of view. Man is in the
habit of projecting his own ideas into the universe. He would be
wrong to regard the sacrifice these higher Beings have made in their
evolution after the fashion of a schoolgirl who has failed to gain
promotion. They do not remain behind because they have neglected
their studies, but from motives of higher wisdom which is omnipresent
in the world. If certain Beings had not renounced their normal stage
of development on Old Sun and had not undergone their evolution on
Earth, we should never have known the birth of language on Earth. In
certain respects man should feel deep affection for his native
language because it was from motives of love that higher Beings
remained behind with him and renounced certain attributes in order
that man should be able to evolve in accordance with the decrees of
higher wisdom. Just as we must regard “hurrying forward”
as a kind of sacrifice, so we must also look upon “remaining
behind” at earlier stages of evolution as a kind of sacrifice
and we must clearly realize that man could not have acquired certain
attributes if such sacrifices had not been made.
Thus
we see how two kinds of Beings of different rank work alternately in
the etheric body of man and in that of the Folk Spirit in question,
namely, the Archangels who have followed a normal development and
those Spirits of Form who have remained behind at the Archangel stage
and have sacrificed their own evolution in order to implant in man
during his life on Earth his native language. They had to be endowed
with the power to transform the larynx and the organs of speech in
such a way that these organs could manifest physically as speech.
National sentiments, national temperament, together with the national
language must be seen as the result of the cooperation of these
Beings. Language, speech and national characteristics, these can be
compassed solely by the Folk Spirits in conjunction with the Spirits
of Form, because with their greater energy and superior powers the
latter had remained behind at the Archangel stage. Cooperation of
this nature takes place therefore in the realms where the Folk
Spirits are active. Similar cooperative activity is also to be found
in yet another domain.
I
pointed out yesterday that other forces also are active — the
First Beginnings, the Archai or Spirits of Personality, who during
the Earth-existence represent what is called the Zeitgeist, the
Spirit of the Age. These work in such a way that from their own ego,
from their psychic organization, they work into the physical body and
thus activate the forces of the physical body. If, at a certain
moment, something arises as a result of the activity of the
Zeitgeist, something manifests itself in the Spirit of an Age
which furthers the progress of mankind, we must assume that this
corresponds to the utilization of physical forces in our Earth life.
A moment's reflection will show that definite prior conditions
of a physical order are necessary in order to provide for certain
contingencies in the Spirit of the Age. Kepler, Copernicus and
Pericles could not possibly have lived in any other age or under
other circumstances. Personalities are the product of the specific
conditions of their time, conditions which at a definite moment of
time are created and determined by the higher Beings working on the
physical plane. Now these physical conditions must not be regarded as
isolated phenomena, but as particular configurations in the physical
constitution of our Earth. Sometimes these configurations stand out
in bold relief; at other times, when the Spirit of the Age directs
his influence in a certain direction, physical objects will
inevitably take on a quite definite pattern. You will recall that on
one occasion, when for the first time specially polished lenses were
used, some children playing in the glass polisher's workshop
assembled them in such a way as to create the optical effect of a
telescope, so that the inventor of the telescope, having discovered
from observation the underlying principle, only needed to apply it to
achieve practical results. This is an historic fact. Imagine the
number of physical processes involved before this result could be
achieved. The lenses had first of all to be invented, polished and
then assembled in the appropriate manner. Chance would account for
this, you might say, but only on condition that you refuse to
acknowledge the law that operates in such circumstances. This
concatenation of outward circumstances is the work of the Archai, the
Primal Forces. Their work is the consequence of focusing their
activity at a particular place, an activity which otherwise, as
Spirit of the Age, is expressed in a variety of ways. Think of how
many inventions would remain forever unknown if this work of the
Archai had not taken place in their etheric bodies. It is really the
work of the Archai which acts in this way and is directed to this
end.
Now
if the activity of the Archai takes this form and is responsible for
directing the Spirit of the Age, the question arises: how do these
Spirits of the Age intuitively sense the progress of mankind? They
create a situation in which man appears to be stimulated fortuitously
by external circumstances. It must not be accounted as pure fiction
if this sometimes occurs. I need only remind you of the swinging lamp
in the cathedral at Pisa where, by observing the regular oscillations
of the lamp, Galileo discovered the law of the pendulum and how,
later on, Kepler and Newton were stimulated to make their
discoveries. I could quote innumerable cases of the coincidence of
external events and human thought which would explain how the
prevailing ideas of an age are intuitively sensed by the Archai,
ideas which influence man's development, determine his progress
and subject it to law. In this domain also, those Beings who have
normally become Spirits of Personality during our Earth-existence,
work in conjunction with other Beings, who, because they remained
behind on the Old Moon, are at present not Spirits of Form or Powers
as they ought to be on Earth, but are now for the first time working
as Spirits of Personality.
Thus
those Beings who remained behind in their evolution not at the Old
Sun stage, but only at the Old Moon stage, are now Spirits of
Personality. They do not possess the attributes which they should
normally have, i.e. they do not “intuit” in the manner of
the backward Spirits of Form. They do not stimulate man from without;
they work more subtly, they leave it to man himself to observe the
changes in his physical being; they stimulate inwardly, fashion the
inner configuration of the brain and encourage a certain trend of
thought. Hence the thought-life of man at different epochs is
motivated from within, so that each epoch has its own definite mode
of thought. This depends upon the delicate configurations of the
thought-life, upon its inner patterns. Here the backward Spirits of
Form who preserve the characteristics of the Spirits of Personality
work within man and create a certain way of thinking, a quite
specific pattern of ideas. Thus, from epoch to epoch, man is not only
guided according to the will of the intuiting Spirits of Personality
who induce him of his own volition to follow a certain course of
action, but he is impelled as if by inner forces, so that thought
starts from within and manifests itself externally in a physical
form, just as language, on the other hand, is a manifestation of the
backward Spirits of Form. Thus the way of thinking is an expression
of those Spirits of Form who in our age are known as Spirits of
Personality. These are not, therefore, Spirits of Personality who
work in a subtle and intimate way and leave man to his own devices;
they take possession of him and drive him irresistibly on. Hence you
can always find in those men who are stimulated by the Spirit of the
Age, these two types. Those persons who are stimulated by the true
Spirits of the Age at their normal stage of development are the true
representatives of their time. We can look upon them as men who were
destined to appear; we feel certain that their activities were
predestined. There are also others, however, in whom are active those
Spirits of Personality who are, in reality, Spirits of Form. Those
are the Spirits whom we called the ‘Thought Spirits’, who
during the Old Moon cycle advanced to their present rank. Man is the
stage upon which the activities of these Beings are coordinated. This
is demonstrated by the mutual interaction between language and
thought, by the reciprocal relationship not only between the Spirits
at the same stage of development, but also by the reciprocal
relationship between the normal Archangels who determine national
sentiment and temperament and those just described — i.e. not
only between the Spirits of Form who are at the Archangel stage, but
also between those Spirits of Personality who, in reality, are
‘backward’ Spirits of Form.
These
two kinds of Beings are reflected in the make-up and being of man. It
is extremely interesting to observe this relationship when, with
occult knowledge and insight, we study the different peoples. We are
then able to follow the way in which the normal Folk Spirits work and
take their directions from the Spirits of the Age; how these Folk
Spirits work in the inner being of man in conjunction with the
Spirits of language and also with the Spirits of thought who work
into the thoughts of man. Within man there are not only normal and
abnormal Archangels, but also the Archangels in contrast to the
abnormal Spirits of Personality who from within determine the pattern
of thought of a particular epoch. I have already mentioned that I
proposed to touch upon conditions which you must accept with your
spiritual understanding and which must be clothed in ordinary
language because no language has as yet been invented which would
make all this clear and credible. I am therefore obliged to use a
terminology which is somewhat figurative. None the less MY
description of the situation accords with an important fact in the
evolution of mankind. It is most interesting and instructive to
follow the evolution of humanity in recent times and to discover that
a mutual agreement was once arrived at between one of the guiding
Folk Spirits who is a normal Archangel, and an abnormal Spirit of
Personality who works in the inner being of man as Spirit of the
Thought-forces. The far-reaching consequences of this agreement are
reflected in a particular epoch of history. In order to make this
agreement fully effective a harmonious relationship was established
with the corresponding normal Archangel who was the guiding Spirit of
language at that time. Thus there was a moment in the evolution of
mankind when the normal and abnormal Archangels worked together and
when; furthermore, the mode of thinking which was brought about from
within by an abnormal Spirit of Personality, was super-added. The
harmonious relationship between these spiritual Beings is reflected
in the ancient Indians of the first post-Atlantean epoch. It was
owing to the concatenation of circumstances at the time of the
ancient Indian culture that these Beings were able to work in closest
harmony. This is the source of the historical role of the Indian
people. The prolonged effects of this concerted action could still be
felt in those later epochs when records of ancient Indian tradition
were still extant. That is the reason why the sacred Sanscrit
language exercised such a powerful influence and had such telling
effects upon culture, both in the past and in later epochs. This
power was the work of the Archangels who were responsible for
language. The strength of the Sanscrit language depends upon that
harmonious relationship of Beings of which I have just spoken. It
accounts for the uniqueness of Indian philosophy which, as creative
thought expressive of the inner life, is unsurpassed by any other
people, and it also explains the inner perfection of thought so
characteristic of the Indian culture. In all other continents
different conditions prevailed. The picture I have just presented
refers only to the Indian culture of that epoch. Hence it is so
infinitely fascinating to follow up these trains of thought which
assume their characteristic pattern because they have resulted, not
from the predominance of the normal Archangel over the abnormal
Archangel, but from the harmonious interaction of these Beings,
because every thought was literally assimilated by the temperament of
the people and elaborated with loving care at the time when the
Indian people represented the first flowering of the post-Atlantean
culture. And the language preserved its powerful influence because
conflict had not arisen there which otherwise might have arisen,
because the normal and abnormal Archangels acted in concert. Thus
language, the spontaneous overflow of a pure, uncorrupted
temperament, is itself an expression of that temperament. That is the
secret of the first post-Atlantean civilization.
And
we must also bear in mind that in all other peoples these Beings or
forces cooperate in their diverse ways — the normal Folk Spirit
or Archangel, the abnormal Archangel and the abnormal Time Spirit who
works through the brain (working. not as a normal Time Spirit, but
from within the body); and finally the true Time Spirit who transmits
intuitively the thought-life to the people. We shall really
understand a people when we feel intuitively the activity of these
Beings or forces and estimate; the contribution each makes to the
constitution of a people. It is difficult, therefore, for those who
do not take into consideration the occult forces in the evolution of
mankind, to provide a satisfactory definition of the word ‘folk’.
If you look up the word ‘folk’ or ‘people’ in
a book on ethnology you will find the strangest assortment of
definitions. The authors must of necessity give different
interpretations because one will respond more to what stems from the
normal Archangels, another to what stems from the, abnormal
Archangels and a third to what stems from the several personalities
of the people. Each has a different response which will modify his
definition. But we have learned through Spiritual, Science that these
definitions need not of necessity be false; they are simply subject
to maya or illusion. A writer's statements will betray how far
he is the victim of Maya or how far he has left out of account the
various forces at work. If, from the anthroposophical standpoint, we
compare a people such as the Swiss who occupy the same territory and
are trilingual with peoples who are uni-lingual we shall inevitably
have widely different conceptions of what constitutes a people.
We
shall discuss later why it is that in some peoples the Spirit of
Personality is the more active agent, that is, why their mode of life
is determined by the cooperation of the several personalities. We
shall also meet with peoples on Earth whose life is largely
determined by the abnormal Spirit of Personality. These Spirits of
Personality do not contribute to the further development of the
peoples. A study of the character of the North American people shows
a people who, for the time being, are under an abnormal Spirit of
Personality. We shall therefore only understand world history, in so
far as it consists of the history of peoples, if we observe the
normal and abnormal Archangels, the normal and abnormal Spirits of
Personality in their mutual relationships and cooperative activity
and at the same time follow up their influence upon the successive
peoples in the course of the world's history.
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